Environment Conservation In Ancient India by Dr Renu Tanwar

 Environment Conservation In Ancient India 

Dr Renu Tanwar Assistant ProfessorDyal Singh College, Karnal 

Introduction In Modern Days Environmental Science And Ecology Is Subject Of Modern Science In Which We Study Environment And Its Constituents. Environmental Degradation As A Phenomenon Can Also Be Defined As Deterioration Of The Earths‟ Natural Surroundings, As A Result Of Excessive Exploitation Of The Available Resources. The Natural World Has Been Totally Altered By The New And Improved Methods Of Production. Present-Day Mankind Is Being Confronted By Serious Crises Due To The Depletion Of Natural Resources And Environ-Mental Degradation Causing Great Damage To Human Sensibility, Man‟s Harmonious Relation-Ship With Nature. June 5, 2011 Was Decided To Be Celebrated As World Environment Day By The United Nations General Assembly In 1972 And The Number Of Ngos And Private Agencies Working For The Cause Of Environment Protection Has Been Increased Tremendously In India In The Last Two Decades. With All These Positive Signs Of Awareness, This Paper Is An Effort To Examine Our Forgotten Culture Which Was Very Environment Sensitive. Ancient Literature Reveals A Full Knowledge Of The Undesirable Effects Of Environmental Degradation, Whether Caused By Natural Factors Or Human Activities. Hindu Philosophy Has Always Been Very Environment Friendly And They Were Very Sensitive About Environment. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita And Puranas Be Full Of The Messages For Preservation Of Environment And Ecological Balance. Objectives Our Ancient Literature Is Full Of Knowledge About All Aspects Of Life But Unfortunately Our Rich Ancient Literature Has Forgotten By Our Young Generations. The Main Objective Of The Paper Is To Throw Some Light On The Awareness Of Our Seers About The Environment. Methodology The Study Is Based On Secondary Data Which Have Been Collected From Various Books, Different National And International Journals, Articles, Websites Etc

I. ANCIENT LITERATURE ON ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION Vedas, Upnishads And Puranas Vedas Are Universally Accepted To Be The Most Precious Indian Heritage. The Vedas Have Knowledge Of All Types And The Main Vedic Views Revolve Around The Concept Of Nature And Life. Vedas Contained Several References On Environment Conservation, Ecological Balance, And Weather Cycle. This Indicates The High Level Of Awareness Of The People At That Time. In Ancient India, Protection And Cleaning Up Of Environment Was The Essence Of Vedic Culture In Hindu Philosophy Forests, Trees And Wildlife Protection Held A Place Of Special Respect. Cutting Green Trees Was Prohibited And Punishment Was Prescribed For Such Acts. The Vedas Attach Great Importance To Environmental Protection And Purity. They Persist On Safeguarding The Habitation, Proper Afforestation And Non-Pollution. In Fact, Man Is Forbidden From Exploiting Nature. He Is Taught To Live In Harmony With Nature And Recognize That Divinity Prevails In All Elements, Including Plants And Animals. The Rishis Of The Past Have Always Had A Great Respect For Nature. A Verse From Rig-Veda Says, “Thousands And Hundreds Of Years If You Want To Enjoy The Fruits And Happiness Of Life Then Take Up Systematic Planting Of Trees.” The Term Pollution Did Not Exist At That Time But They Call It Poisoning Of Environment. They Believe That The Five Great Elements (Space, Air, Fire, Water And Earth) That Constitute The Environment Are All Derived From Prakriti, The Primal Energy And Our Human Body Is Composed Of These And Related To TheseFiveElements, And Connects Each Of The Elements To One Of The Five Senses. The Human Nose Is Related To Earth, Tongue To Water, Eyes To Fire, Skin To Air And Ears To Space. This Bond Between Our Senses And The Elements Is The Foundation Of Our Human Relationship With The Natural World. For Hinduism, Nature And The Environment Are Not Outside Us. They Are An Inseparable Part Of Our ExistenceAnd They Constitute Our Very Bodies. The Vedas Stress The Need For Protection And Development Of Forests. Human Beings Have To Safeguard The Trees. The Vedas Emphasize That The Plants And Trees Are The Treasures For Generations. It Is Amazing That The People In Vedic Times Regarded Nature And The Environment In A Holistic Manner And Revered Each Of Its Constituents And Entities By Carefully Preserving Them. "Do Not Harm The Environment; Do Not Harm The Water And The Flora; Earth Is My Mother, I Am Her Son; May The Waters Remain Fresh, Do Not Harm The Waters”.“Do Not Cut Trees, Because They Remove Pollution.” (Rig Veda, 6:48:17)“Do Not Disturb The Sky And Do Not Pollute The Atmosphere.” (Yajur Veda,5:43) Besides Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Sutras And Other Sacred Texts Of Hinduism Contains A Number Of References Of The Worship Of The Nature. Our Sanskrit Mantras Daily Remind Us That Our Rivers, Mountains, Trees, Animals And The Earth Deserve Respect And Dignity. The Upanishads Are A Collection Of Texts That Contain Some Of The Central Philosophical Concepts Of Hinduism, Some Of Which Are Shared With Buddhism And Jainism. Hinduism Recognizes That The Human Body Is Composed Of And Related To These Five Elements, And Connects Each Of The Elements To One Of The Five Senses. The Human Nose Is Related To Earth, Tongue To Water, Eyes To Fire, Skin To Air And Ears To Space. This Link Between Our Senses And The Elements Is The Foundation Of Our Human Relationship With The Natural World. For Hinduism, Nature And The Environment Are Not Outside Us. They Are An Inseparable Part Of Our Existence. A Quote From Vishnu Purana States: "As The Wide-Spreading Nargodha (Sanskrit For Banyan) Tree Is Compressed In A Small Seed, So At The Time Of Dissolution, The Whole Universe Is Comprehended In Thee As Its Germ; As The Nargodha Germinates From The Seed, And Becomes Just A Shoot And Then Rises Into Loftiness, So The Created World Proceeds From Thee And Expands Into Magnitude." The Varah Purana Says, ”One Who Plants One Peepal, One Neem, One Bar, Ten Flowering Plants Or Creepers, Two Pomegranates, Two Oranges And Five Mangos, Does Not Go To Hell."

II. RAMAYAN, MAHABHARTA AND BHAGVAD GITA The Hindu Religion Also Stresses Awareness In The Conservation Of Trees. In The Epic Ramayana Ravana, When Faced With Calamity, Speaks As Follows:... I Have Not Cut Down Any Fig Tree In The Month Of Vaisakh, Why Then Does This Calamity Befall Me? This Serves As A Good Example To Illustrate How Hindus Respected Trees Which Constituted A Large Part Of Our Environment.In The Words Of The Ancient Immemorial Indian Poet, Kalidasa:"The Himalaya Is A Great Devatatma, A Great Spiritual Presence, Stretching From The West To The Eastern Sea Like A Measuring Rod To Gauge The World's Greatness." The Mahabharata Hints That The Basic Elements Of Nature Constitute The Cosmic Being -- The Mountains His Bones, The Earth His Flesh, The Sea His Blood, The Sky His Abdomen, The Air His Breath And Agni (Fire) His Energy. The Whole Emphasis Of The Ancient Hindu Scriptures Is That Human Beings Cannot Separate Themselves From Natural Surroundings And Earth Has The Same Relationship With Man As The Mother With Her Child. Planting And Preservation Of Trees Are Made Sacred In Religious Functions "The Purchaser Of Flesh Performs Himsa (Violence) By His Wealth; He Who Eats Flesh Does So By Enjoying Its Taste; The Killer Does Himsa By Actually Tying And Killing The Animal. Thus, There Are Three Forms Of Killing: He Who Brings Flesh Or Sends For It, He Who Cuts Off The Limbs Of An Animal, And He Who Purchases, Sells Or Cooks Flesh And Eats It - All Of These Are To Be Considered Meat-Eaters.” - The MahabharataBhagavad Gita , Contain Many References To The Omnipresence Of The Supreme Divinity, Including Its Presence Throughout And Within Nature. In Sloka 20, Chapter 10, Lord Krishna Says, "I Am The Self Seated In The Heart Of All Creatures. I Am The Beginning, The Middle And The Very End Of All Beings". All Beings Have, Therefore To Be Treated Alike." In The Bhagavad Gita, Krishna Compares The World To A Single Banyan Tree With Unlimited Branches In Which All The Species Of Animals, Humans And Demigods Wander. Indian Consciousness Is Full Of Trees And Forests. Various Trees, Fruits And Plants Have Special Significance In Hindu Ritual. Hindu Religious Scripts, Stories, And Rituals Have Attempted To Drive Home The Importance Of Preserving Nature By Deifying It Through The Centuries.Lord Krishna Says In The Bhagavad Gita (9.26):“Patram Pushpam Phalam Toyam, Yo Mey Bhaktya Prayachchati Tadaham Bhakt Yupahrutam Asnaami Prayataatmanaha” I Accept A Leaf, Flower, Fruit Or Water Or Whatever Is Offered With Devotion The Coconut Tree And The Coconut Are Sacred And Are Offered To God During Worship. Mango Leaves Are Used As Festoons During Pujas And Auspicious Events. All Flowers And Leaves Of Plants Are Used During Worship For Pushpa Puja And Patra Puja. The Lotus Is A Sacred Flower And Plant For Hindus. The 'Tulsi' Plant Or Indian Basil Is An Important Symbol In The Hindu Religious Tradition.

III. KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHAST Kautilya‟s Arthaśāstra, An Ancient Indian Treatise On Administration, Economic Policy, Taxation, Diplomacy, Planning And Other Dimensions Of Statecraft, Remains Very Much Relevant In Today‟s World As Well. The Text Was Influential Until The 12th Century, When It Disappeared. It Was Rediscovered In 1904 By R. Shamasastry, Who Published It In 1909. The First English Translation Was Published In 1915.M This Treatise Provides Lot Of Knowledge About Environment And Its Conservation. It Describes The Maintenance Of Public Sanitation And Preservation Of Environment, Forest And Wildlife. Even In The Affairs Of The State, The Administration And The Ruler Were Directed To Preserve And Promote Environmental Welfare. In The Arthasastra, Kautilya Suggests The Need To Develop Abhayāranya Or Abhayavana, Forest And Animal Sanctuaries, Where Trees And Animals Would Both Reside Free From The Fear Of Slaughter. Kautilya Also Prescribed The Post Of A Forest Superintendent And Penalties For Poaching And Causing Damage To Forests, Especially Productive Ones. In Topic 35, The He Recommends That The "Superintendent Of Forest Produce" Appointed By The State For Each Forest Zone Be Responsible For Maintaining The Health Of The Forest, Protecting Forests To Assist Wildlife Such As Elephants (Hastivana), But Also Producing Forest Products To Satisfy Economic Needs, Products Such As Teak, Palmyra, Mimosa, Sissu, Kauki, Sirisha, Catechu, Latifolia, Arjuna, Tilaka, Tinisa, Sal, Robesta, Pinus, Somavalka, Dhava, Birch, Bamboo, Hemp, Balbaja (Used For Ropes), Munja, Fodder, Firewood, Bulbous Roots And Fruits For Medicine, Flowers. The Arthashastra Also Reveals That The Mauryas Designated Specific Forests To Protect Supplies Of Timber, As Well As Lions And Tigers, For Skins. Kautilya Gives The Notion That New Forests Were To Be Planned, At The Time Of A New State Having Been Established, On An Unoccupied Land And The Land Unsuitable For Agriculture The Arthasastra‟s Directives On Water Indicate That It Was Regarded As A „Collective, Not A Private Commodity‟ And Was Considered Extremely Precious. Fines Were Also Prescribed For A Number Of Acts That Adversely Affected Water Bodies, „For Obstructing Or Diverting A Water Course‟, For „Damaging Embankments‟ Etc. He Emphasized On Efficient Water Management And The Detailed Instructions On How To Do It. He Recommended Practices For The Conservation Of Natural Resources, Especially Living Resources. He Was Aware That The Future Productivity Of Natural Resources Is Linked To Their Appropriate Conservation. Also, In Line With Hindu Traditions, He Recommends Kindness Towards Animals. Arthashastra Reveals The Attention Focused On Wildlife In The Mauryan Period: Certain Forests Were Declared Protected And Called Abhayaranya Like The Present Day 'Sanctuary'. Heavy Penalties, Including Capital Punishment, Were Prescribed For Offenders Who Entrapped, Killed Or Otherwise Molested Elephants, Deer, Bison, Birds, Or Fish, Amongst Other Animals.

IV. TAGORE’S POEMS In The Galaxy Of The Prophets Of Humanism Of The 20th Century, Rabindranath Tagore, The Novel Laureate, Occupies A Frontal Position. He Churned Out Poems, Plays And Short Stories Emphasizing The Need To Protect Nature. Human Interaction With Nature Was A Persistent Concern Of Rabindranath Tagore From His Very Early Age. Nature Runs As A Consistent Theme In All Of Rabindranath Tagore's Work. He Was An Environmental Pioneer And Wanted Harmony Between Progress And Preservation. He Had Been Expressive About The Exploitation Of Environment Even A Century Ago. Tagore First Became Concerned About Man's Impact On The Environment After Seeing An Oil Spill At Sea On His Way To Japan In 1916, Decades Before An Environmental Movement Emerged In The West. Archana Bhattacharjee Analysed Tagore‟s Selected Nature Poems, Written A Century Back Viz. “The Tame Bird Was In A Cage” And “I Plucked You Flower” In The Light Of The Above Theory To See What Kind Of Message To Humanity They Carry Regarding Environmental Threats The World Is Facing Today. In His Time Problems Like Water And Air Pollution, Problems Of Development Waste, Habitat Destruction, Threats To Bio-Diversity, Resource Depletion And Global Green House Problems Were Not Properly Understood And Recognised. Tagore With His Sensitive Farsighted-Ness Realised The Basic Links Between Industria-Lism, Consumerism And Militarism And Properly Felt That The Success Of Growth Ulti-Mately Would Lead To Its Own Demise. He Wrote Poems, Plays, Short Stories And Also A Separate Group Of Lyrics In The Form Of Poems For Songs Under The Name Of "Prakriti Parjaay" (Here, Prakriti Means Nature And Parjaay Means Genre), Emphasising The Need To Protect Nature As Well As Our Mother Earth. Tagore Not Only Wrote Extensively On Man's Relationship With The Environment But Implemented It Too By Building Santiniketan. It Is Surrounded By Greenery On All Sides. He Created An Example For The Whole World In Terms Of The Relationship Between Nature And Humans.

V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS If We Look Back Into Our Ancient Literature, It Provides A Good Deal Of Knowledge About Each And Every Aspect Of Life. We Have Rich Literature Inherited By Our Ancestors. In Case Of Environment Conservation We Can Learn A Lot From Our Ancestors. Dr. Abdul Kalam's Words: “Ancient India Was A Knowledge Society That Contributed A Great Deal To Civilization. We Need To Recover The Status And Become A Knowledge Power. Spirituality Must Be Integrated With Education. We Should Ignite Our Dormant Inner Energy And Let It Guide Our Lives. The Radiance Of Such Minds Embarked On Constructive Endeavour Will Bring Peace, Prosperity, And Bliss To The Nation.” Our Ancestors Have Long Been Among The Most Outspoken Defenders Of Natures Balance. For The Hindu, Nature Is Sacred, To Be Respected And Cared For. Thus We Can Say That Ancient Indians Were Very Much Aware About The Ecology And Sustainability. It Helps In Solving Specific Environmental Problems And The Modern Principles Of Sustainability Were Adopted At That Time. But Unfortunately We Have Forgotten Those Golden Principles Which Can Be Very Helpful In Now Days. To Have A Balanced, Peaceful Life, We Should Not Create Disturbances To Our Surroundings. We Should Make Extensive Efforts In Planting Trees, Conserving Soil, Protecting Biological Diversity, And Finding New Ways Of Producing Natural Energy Could Help To A Greater Extent In Maintaining A Balanced Environmental Harmony In Our Present World. 

REFERENCES [1] Archana Bhattacharjee: Environmental Degradation;Issues And Concerns In Rabindernath Tagore‟s Selected Poems, Galaxy;International Multidisciplinary Journal [2] Atiur Rahman Tagore's Thoughts On Environment; Http://Www.Thedailystar.Net/ [3] Jayanta Kumar Ghosal :Rabindranath On Environment, Mainstream,Vol Liv No 20 New Delhi May 7 2016 [4] R.Vijyalakshami,Viewpoints: Environmental Awareness: The Hindu Perspective,Journal Of HinduChristian Studies, Volume 6,Article 12,1993 [5] S.Kannan, Vedvikas, Online Repository Of Vedic Management, Vedic Science And Vedic Culture [6] Https://Www.Scribd.Com/ [7] Http://Www.Hinduwisdom.Info/ [8] Https://Hindufocus.Wordpress.Com

 https://www.huffpost.com/entry/10-hindu-environmental-te_b_846245 

A wonderful article from Huffpost

10 Hindu Environmental Teachings

04/10/2011 06:22 pm ET Updated Jun 10, 2011

Hinduism contains numerous references to the worship of the divine in nature in its Vedas,
Upanishads, Puranas, Sutras and its other sacred texts. Millions of Hindus recite Sanskrit mantras daily to revere their rivers, mountains, trees, animals and the earth. Although the Chipko (tree-hugging) Movement is the most widely known example of Hindu environmental leadership, there are examples of Hindu action for the environment that are centuries old.

Hinduism is a remarkably diverse religious and cultural phenomenon, with many local and
regional manifestations. Within this universe of beliefs, several important themes emerge. The diverse theologies of Hinduism suggest that:

• The earth can be seen as a manifestation of the goddess, and must be treated with respect.
• The five elements — space, air, fire, water and earth — are the foundation of an interconnected web of life.
• Dharma — often translated as “duty” — can be reinterpreted to include our responsibility to care for the earth.
• Simple living is a model for the development of sustainable economies.
• Our treatment of nature directly affects our karma.

Gandhi exemplified many of these teachings, and his example continues to inspire contemporary social, religious and environmental leaders in their efforts to protect the planet.

The following are 10 important Hindu teachings on the environment:

1. Pancha Mahabhutas (The five great elements) create a web of life that is shown forth in the structure and interconnectedness of the cosmos and the human body. Hinduism teaches that the five great elements (space, air, fire, water and earth) that constitute the environment are all derived from prakriti, the primal energy. Each of these elements has its own life and form; together the elements are interconnected and interdependent. The Upanishads explains the interdependence of these elements in relation to Brahman, the supreme reality, from which they arise: “From Brahman arises space, from space arises air, from air arises fire, from fire arises water, and from water arises earth.”

Hinduism recognizes that the human body is composed of and related to these five elements,
and connects each of the elements to one of the five senses. The human nose is related to earth, tongue to water, eyes to fire, skin to air and ears to space. This bond between our senses and the elements is the foundation of our human relationship with the natural world. For Hinduism, nature and the environment are not outside us, not alien or hostile to us. They are an inseparable part of our existence, and they constitute our very bodies.
2. Ishavasyam — Divinity is omnipresent and takes infinite forms. Hindu texts, such as the Bhagavad Gita (7.19, 13.13) and the Bhagavad Purana (2.2.41, 2.2.45), contain many references to the omnipresence of the Supreme divinity, including its presence throughout and within nature. Hindus worship and accept the presence of God in nature. For example, many Hindus think of India’s mighty rivers — such as the Ganges — as goddesses. In the Mahabharata, it is noted that the universe and every object in it has been created as an abode of the Supreme God meant for the benefit of all, implying that individual species should enjoy their role within a larger system, in relationship with other species.

3. Protecting the environment is part of Dharma. Dharma, one of the most important Hindu concepts, has been translated into English as duty, virtue, cosmic order and religion. In Hinduism, protecting the environment is an important expression of dharma.
In past centuries, Indian communities — like other traditional communities — did not have an
understanding of “the environment” as separate from the other spheres of activity in their lives.

A number of rural Hindu communities such as the Bishnois, Bhils and Swadhyaya have
maintained strong communal practices to protect local ecosystems such as forests and water
sources. These communities carry out these conservation-oriented practices not as “environmental” acts but rather as expressions of dharma. When Bishnois are protecting animals and trees, when Swadhyayis are building Vrikshamandiras (tree temples) and Nirmal Nirs (water harvesting sites) and when Bhils are practicing their rituals in sacred groves, they are simply expressing their reverence for creation according to Hindu teachings, not “restoring the environment.” These traditional Indian groups do not see religion, ecology and ethics as separate arenas of life. Instead, they understand it to be part of their dharma to treat creation with respect.
4. Our environmental actions affect our karma. Karma, a central Hindu teaching, holds that each of our actions creates consequences — good and bad — which constitute our karma and determine our future fate, including the place we will assume when we are reincarnated in our next life. Moral behavior creates good karma, and our behavior toward the environment has karmic consequences. Because we have free choice, even though we may have harmed the environment in the past, we can choose to protect the environment in the future, replacing environmentally destructive karmic patterns with good ones.
5. The earth — Devi — is a goddess and our mother and deserves our devotion and protection. Many Hindu rituals recognize that human beings benefit from the earth, and offer gratitude and protection in response. Many Hindus touch the floor before getting out of bed every morning and ask Devi to forgive them for trampling on her body. Millions of Hindus create kolams daily — artwork consisting of bits of rice or other food placed at their doorways in the morning. These kolams express Hindu’s desire to offer sustenance to the earth, just as the earth sustains themselves. The Chipko movement — made famous by Chipko women’s commitment to “hugging” trees in their community to protect them from clear-cutting by outside interests — represents a similar devotion to the earth.
6. Hinduism’s tantric and yogic traditions affirm the sacredness of material reality and contain teachings and practices to unite people with divine energy. Hinduism’s Tantric tradition teaches that the entire universe is the manifestation of divine energy. Yoga, derived from the Sanskrit word meaning “to yoke” or “to unite,” refers to a series of mental and physical practices designed to connect the individual with this divine energy. Both these traditions affirm that all phenomena, objects and individuals are expressions of the divine. And because these traditions both envision the earth as a goddess, contemporary Hindu teachers have used these teachings to demonstrate the wrongness of the exploitation of the environment, women and indigenous peoples.

7. Belief in reincarnation supports a sense of interconnectedness of all creation. Hindus believe in the cycle of rebirth, wherein every being travels through millions of cycles of birth and rebirth in different forms, depending on their karma from previous lives. So a person may be reincarnated as a person, animal, bird or another part of the wider community of life. Because of this, and because all people are understood to pass through many lives on their pathway to ultimate liberation, reincarnation creates a sense of solidarity between people and all living things.

Through belief in reincarnation, Hinduism teaches that all species and all parts of the earth are part of an extended network of relationships connected over the millennia, with each part of this network deserving respect and reverence.
8. Non-violence — ahimsa — is the greatest dharma. Ahimsa to the earth improves one’s karma. For observant Hindus, hurting or harming another being damages one’s karma and obstructs advancement toward moksha — liberation. To prevent the further accrual of bad karma, Hindus are instructed to avoid activities associated with violence and to follow a vegetarian diet.

Based on this doctrine of ahimsa, many observant Hindus oppose the institutionalized breeding and killing of animals, birds and fish for human consumption.
9. Sanyasa (asceticism) represents a path to liberation and is good for the earth. Hinduism teaches that asceticism — restraint in consumption and simplicity in living — represents a pathway
toward moksha (liberation), which treats the earth with respect. A well-known Hindu teaching — Tain tyakten bhunjitha — has been translated, “Take what you need for your sustenance without a sense of entitlement or ownership.”
One of the most prominent Hindu environmental leaders, Sunderlal Bahuguna, inspired many Hindus by his ascetic lifestyle. His repeated fasts and strenuous foot marches, undertaken to support and spread the message of the Chipko, distinguished him as a notable ascetic in our own time. In his capacity for suffering and his spirit of self-sacrifice, Hindus saw a living example of the renunciation of worldly ambition exhorted by Hindu scriptures.
10. Gandhi is a role model for simple living. Gandhi’s entire life can be seen as an ecological treatise. This is one life in which every minute act, emotion or thought functioned much like an ecosystem: his small meals of nuts and fruits, his morning ablutions and everyday bodily practices, his periodic observances of silence, his morning walks, his cultivation of the small as much as of the big, his spinning wheel, his abhorrence of waste, his resorting to basic Hindu and Jain values of truth, nonviolence, celibacy and fasting. The moralists, nonviolent activists, feminists, journalists, social reformers, trade union leaders, peasants, prohibitionists, nature-cure lovers, renouncers and environmentalists all take their inspirations from Gandhi’s life and writings.

(Acknowledgement: Adapted from the essays by Christopher K. Chapple, O. P. Dwivedi, K. L. Seshagiri Rao, Vinay Lal, and George A. James in Hinduism and Ecology: The Intersection of Earth, Sky, and Water and Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life, both published by Harvard University Press. Thanks also to the essays by Harold Coward and Rita DasGupta Sherma in Purifying the Earthly Body of God: Religion and Ecology in Hindu India, published by SUNY Press. I am also indebted to
kind comments by Reverend Fletcher Harper and for his invitation to write this article.)

A version of this post was published originally via GreenFaith: Interfaith Partners for the Environment.